- Auto Scroll
Part Four: The Doctrine of The Application of The Work of Redemption
I. Soteriology in General
We have been building something, piece by piece. First we studied God Himself, then man as He made him, then sin as it wrecked him, then Christ as the one who came to rescue him. Now we come to the question that ties them all together: how does what Christ accomplished actually reach the sinner?
This is soteriology, the doctrine of salvation's application. And right away, we face a choice about how to frame it. Should we describe it from our side, as something we appropriate, something we reach out and take? Or from God's side, as something He applies to us? The difference matters enormously. If we start with man reaching for salvation, we have already tilted the whole picture toward human effort. If we start with God applying His finished work, we keep the emphasis where Scripture puts it: on divine sovereignty and grace.
Reformed theology insists on the second. Soteriology is best understood from a theological perspective emphasizing God's sovereign application of redemption to sinners. One theologian proposed a compromise term, calling it the "administration of redemption," trying to split the difference. But the Reformed tradition prefers "application" precisely because it carries the weight of God's initiative. The sinner does not administer his own rescue. God does.
- Soteriology is best understood from a theological perspective emphasizing God's sovereign application of redemption to sinners
- The term "administration of redemption" was proposed as a compromise between "application" and "appropriation"
- "Appropriation" tilts toward human effort; "application" preserves the emphasis on divine sovereignty
A. CONNECTION BETWEEN SOTERIOLOGY AND THE PRECEDING LOCI.
SOTERIOLOGY deals with the communication of the blessings
of salvation to the
sinner and his restoration to divine favor and to a life in intimate
communion with God.
It presupposes knowledge of God as the all-sufficient source of the
life, the strength,
and the happiness of mankind, and of man's utter dependence on Him for
the present
and the future. Since it deals with restoration, redemption, and
renewal, it can only be
understood properly in the light of the original condition of man as
created in the image
of God, and of the subsequent disturbance of the proper relationship
between man and
his God by the entrance of sin into the world. Moreover, since it treats
of the salvation of
the sinner wholly as a work of God, known to Him from all eternity, it
naturally carries
our thoughts back to the eternal counsel of peace and the covenant of
grace, in which
provision was made for the redemption of fallen men. It proceeds on the
assumption of
the completed work of Christ as the Mediator of redemption. There is the
closest
possible connection between Christology and Soteriology. Some, as, for
instance,
Hodge, treat of both under the common heading "Soteriology."
Christology then
becomes objective, as distinguished from subjective, Soteriology. In
defining the
contents of
Soteriology, it is better to say that it deals with the
application of the work of redemption
than to say that it treats of the
appropriation of salvation.
The matter
should be studied theologically rather than anthropologically. The work of God
rather than the
work of man is definitely in the foreground. Pope objects to the use of
the former term,
since in using it "we are in danger of the predestinarian error
which assumes that the
finished work of Christ is applied to the individual according to the
fixed purpose of an
election of grace." This is the very reason why a Calvinist prefers
to use that term. To do Pope justice, however, it should be added that he also
objects to the other term, because
it "tends to the other and Pelagian extreme, too obviously making
the atoning provision
of Christ a matter of individual free acceptance or rejection." He
prefers to speak of "
the administration of redemption," which is indeed a very good term.
The ordo salutis (order of salvation) describes the process by which the Holy Spirit takes Christ's finished work and makes it real in the hearts and lives of sinners. It is not a strict timeline, as if one thing finishes before the next begins. It is more like the logical structure of what God does: which acts depend on which, which come first in order of thought.
This doctrine is a fruit of the Reformation. Before that, theologians treated the pieces of salvation, faith here, repentance there, good works somewhere else, as scattered fragments with no organizing structure. One Reformer was the first to systematically treat the various parts of the ordo salutis as a connected whole. Later thinkers refined what he started.
Scripture itself does not spell out an explicit order, but it comes close. Romans 8:29-30 is the nearest thing we have: foreknown, predestined, called, justified, glorified. And across the whole of Scripture, we find a rich description of the Spirit's operations and their relationships to one another, enough to build on.
The Reformed, Lutheran, Roman Catholic, and Arminian traditions each construct the ordo salutis differently, and the differences reveal deep disagreements about grace, human ability, and God's sovereignty. Think of four architects looking at the same building materials and assembling them in four different orders, each one expressing a different conviction about what holds the building up.
The Reformed view roots the entire order in the pactum salutis (covenant of redemption) and the eternal decree of election. God's plan is the foundation. Some Reformed theologians begin the applied order with justification, extending the concept back to include the eternal imputation. But the majority begin with regeneration or calling and move through conversion (repentance and faith), justification, sanctification, perseverance, and glorification. The emphasis is always on God's sovereign initiative. Within this order, two categories of divine acts can be distinguished: judicial acts that alter the sinner's legal state before God (like justification), and recreative acts that alter the sinner's inner condition (like regeneration and sanctification).
The Lutheran view centers on active faith arising in man, on which everything in the application of salvation hinges. Faith is the all-determining factor. Election, mystical union, and imputation are not denied, but the entire order pivots on the moment faith appears. Calling, illumination, repentance, and regeneration are treated as merely preparatory acts that do not yet constitute covenant blessings. They prepare the ground, but the real transaction begins with faith. And because everything depends on continuing to believe, grace in the Lutheran system is something that can be lost.
The Roman Catholic view builds through sacraments. Infants are regenerated by baptism. Adults receive an initial grace called gratia sufficiens, which illumines the mind and strengthens the will. If the person consents, this becomes cooperating grace, leading through a seven-step preparation for justification. At the center of the Roman system stands a distinctive account of faith. Mere intellectual assent (fides informis) must become faith shaped by love (fides caritate formata), which is the only justifying faith. This transformation happens through infused grace, which also enables the believer to perform works that earn meritum de condigno, true merit that justly earns further grace and eternal life. If justification is lost through mortal sin, it can be regained through the sacrament of penance.
The Arminian view looks closer to the Reformed on the surface but operates on different foundations. The atonement is universal. Total depravity is denied. Sufficient grace is given to all, exerting a moral influence that man may resist or yield to. In this system, faith is imputed for righteousness in lieu of the perfect obedience that the law demands. Christ's merits provide the basis for forgiveness of sins, but His righteousness is not imputed as the believer's own. The believer is pardoned but not, strictly speaking, accepted as righteous on the ground of Christ's obedience.
The Wesleyan variant is closer to Reformed theology than the original version, but in some ways less consistent. It admits the imputation of Adam's guilt but holds that universal justification in Christ removes it for all at birth. It admits total depravity but says no one actually remains in that state, because Christ's work through the Spirit has already enabled everyone to cooperate with grace. Most distinctively, it teaches Christian perfection or entire sanctification as a genuine attainment possible within the believer's earthly life. Most modern versions of this tradition follow the Wesleyan pattern rather than the older one.
- The doctrine of the ordo salutis is a fruit of the Reformation, since pre-Reformation theology treated soteriology as scattered fragments
- Calvin was the first to systematically treat the various parts of the ordo salutis
- Romans 8:29-30 is Scripture's closest approximation to an explicit ordo salutis
- The Reformed view roots the ordo in the pactum salutis and the eternal decree of election
- In the Lutheran view, active faith arising in man is the all-determining factor on which everything in salvation hinges
- Lutherans treat calling, illumination, repentance, and regeneration as merely preparatory acts that do not yet constitute covenant blessings
- In the Roman Catholic view, gratia sufficiens illumines the mind and strengthens the will before the individual gives assent
- Fides caritate formata is faith shaped by love and the only justifying faith, while fides informis is intellectual assent alone
- Works empowered by gratia infusa earn meritum de condigno, true merit that justly earns further grace and eternal life
- In the Arminian view, faith is imputed for righteousness in lieu of the perfect obedience the law demands
- Arminians teach that Christ's merits provide the basis for forgiveness, but His righteousness is not imputed as the believer's own
- The Wesleyan variant admits the imputation of Adam's guilt but holds that universal justification in Christ removes it for all at birth
- Wesleyan theology teaches Christian perfection or entire sanctification as a genuine attainment possible within the believer's earthly life
- Berkhof distinguishes judicial acts altering the sinner's legal state from recreative acts altering the sinner's inner condition
B. THE ORDO SALUTIS, (ORDER OF SALVATION).
The Germans speak of "Heilsaneignung," the
Dutch, of "Heilsweg" and
"Orde des Heils," and the English, of the "Way of Salvation." The
ordo salutis
describes the process
by which the work of salvation, wrought in Christ, is subjectively
realized in the hearts
and lives of sinners. It aims at describing in their logical order, and
also in their
interrelations, the various movements of the Holy Spirit in the
application of the work
of redemption. The emphasis is not on what man does in appropriating the
grace of
God, but on what God does in applying it. It is but natural that
Pelagians should object
to this view.
The desire to simplify the
ordo salutis
often led to unwarranted limitations.
Weizsaecker would include in it only the operations of the Holy Spirit
wrought in the
heart of man, and holds that neither calling nor justification can
properly be included
under this category.
When we speak of an ordo salutis we do not forget that the work of applying the grace of God to the individual sinner is a unitary process, but simply stress the fact that various movements can be distinguished in the process, that the work of the application of redemption proceeds in a definite and reasonable order, and that God does not impart the fulness of His salvation to the sinner in a single act. Had He done this, the work of redemption would not have come to the consciousness of God's children in all its aspects and in all its divine fulness. Neither do we lose sight of the fact that we often use the terms employed to describe the various movements in a more limited sense than the Bible does.
The question may be raised, whether the Bible ever indicates a definite ordo salutis. The answer to that question is that, while it does not explicitly furnish us with a complete order of salvation, it offers us a sufficient basis for such an order. The nearest approach found in Scripture to anything like an ordo salutis, is the statement of Paul in Rom. 8:29,30. Some of the Lutheran theologians based their enumeration of the various movements in the application of redemption rather artificially on Acts 26:17,18. But while the Bible does not give us a clear-cut ordo salutis, it does do two things which enable us to construe such an order. (1) It furnishes us with a very full and rich enumeration of the operations of the Holy Spirit in applying the work of Christ to individual sinners, and of the blessings of salvation imparted to them. In doing this, it does not always use the very terms employed in Dogmatics, but frequently resorts to the use of other names and to figures of speech. Moreover, it often employs terms which have now acquired a very definite technical meaning in Dogmatics, in a far wider sense. Such words as regeneration, calling, conversion, and renewal repeatedly serve to designate the whole change that is brought about in the inner life of man. (2) It indicates in many passages and in various ways the relation in which the different movements in the work of redemption stand to each other. It teaches that we are justified by faith and not by works, Rom. 3:30; 5:1; Gal. 2:16-20; that, being justified, we have peace with God and access to Him, Rom. 5:1,2; that we are set free from sin to become servants of righteousness, and to reap the fruit of sanctification, Rom. 6:18,22; that when we are adopted as children, we receive the Spirit who gives us assurance, and also become co- heirs with Christ, Rom. 8:15-17; Gal. 4:4,5,6; that faith comes by the hearing of the word of God, Rom. 10:17; that death unto the law results in life unto God, Gal. 2:19,20; that when we believe, we are sealed with the Spirit of God, Eph. 1:13,14; that it is necessary to walk worthily of the calling with which we are called, Eph. 4:1,2; that having obtained the righteousness of God by faith, we share the sufferings of Christ, and also the power of His resurrection, Phil. 3:9,10; and that we are begotten again through the Word of God, I Pet. 1:23. These and similar passages indicate the relation of the various movements of the redemptive work to one another, and thus afford a basis for the construction of an ordo salutis.
In view of the fact that the Bible does not specify the
exact order that applies in the
application of the work of redemption, there is naturally considerable
room for a
difference of opinion. And as a matter of fact the Churches are not all
agreed as to the
ordo salutis.
The doctrine of the order of salvation is a fruit of the Reformation.
Hardly
any semblance of it is found in the works of the Scholastics. In
pre-Reformation
theology scant justice is done to soteriology in general. It does not
constitute a separate
locus, and its constituent parts are discussed under other rubrics, more
or less as
disjecta membra.
Even the greatest of the Schoolmen, such as Peter the Lombard and
Thomas
Aquinas, pass on at once from the discussion of the incarnation to that
of the Church
and the sacraments. What may be called their soteriology consists of
only two chapters,
de Fide et de Poenitentia.
The
bona opera
also receive considerable attention.
Since
Protestantism took its start from the criticism and displacement of the
Roman Catholic conception of faith, repentance, and good works, it was but
natural that the interest of
the Reformers should center on the origin and development of the new
life in Christ.
Calvin was the first to group the various parts of the order of
salvation in a systematic
way, but even his representation, says Kuyper, is rather subjective,
since it formally
stresses the human activity rather than the divine.
1. THE REFORMED VIEW. Proceeding on the
assumption that man's spiritual condition
depends on his state, that is, on his relation to the law; and that it
is only on the basis of
the imputed righteousness of Jesus Christ that the sinner can be
delivered from the
corrupting and destructive influence of sin, —— Reformed
Soteriology takes its starting
point in the union established in the
pactum salutis
between Christ and
those whom the
Father has given Him, in virtue of which there is an eternal imputation
of the
righteousness of Christ to those who are His. In view of this precedence
of the legal over
the moral some theologians, such as Maccovius, Comrie, A. Kuyper Sr.,
and A. Kuyper
Jr., begin the
ordo salutis
with justification rather than regeneration. In doing this they
apply the name "justification" also to the ideal imputation of
the righteousness of Christ
to the elect in the eternal counsel
of
God. Dr. Kuyper further says
that the Reformed
differ from the Lutherans in that the former teach justification
per justitiam Christi, while
the latter represent the justification
per fidem
as completing the
work of Christ.
Bavinck distinguishes three groups in the blessings of salvation. He starts out by saying that sin is guilt, pollution, and misery, for it involves a breaking of the covenant of works, a loss of the image of God, and a subjection to the power of corruption. Christ delivered us from these three by His suffering, His meeting the demands of the law, and His victory over death. Consequently, the blessings of Christ consist in the following: (a) He restores the right relation of man to God and to all creatures by justification, including the forgiveness of sins, the adoption of children, peace with God, and glorious liberty. (b) He renews man in the image of God by regeneration, internal calling, conversion, renewal, and sanctification. (c) He preserves man for his eternal inheritance, delivers him from suffering and death, and puts him in possession of eternal salvation by preservation, perseverance, and glorification. The first group of blessings is granted unto us by the illumination of the Holy Spirit, is accepted by faith, and sets our conscience free. The second is imparted to us by the regenerating work of the Holy Spirit, renews us, and redeems us from the power of sin. And the third flows to us by the preserving, guiding, and sealing work of the Holy Spirit as the earnest of our complete redemption, and delivers us, body and soul, from the dominion of misery and death. The first group anoints us as prophets, the second, as priests, and the third, as kings. In connection with the first we look back to the completed work of Christ on the cross, where our sins were atoned; in connection with the second we look up to the living Lord in heaven, who as High Priest is seated at the right hand of the Father; and in connection with the third we look forward to the future coming of Jesus Christ, in which He will subject all enemies and will surrender the kingdom to the Father.
There are some things that should be borne in mind in connection with the ordo salutis, as it appears in Reformed theology.
a. Some of the terms are not always used in the same sense. The term justification is generally limited to what is called justification by faith, but is sometimes made to cover an objective justification of the elect in the resurrection of Jesus Christ, and the imputation of the righteousness of Christ to them in the pactum salutis. Again, the word regeneration, which now generally designates that act of God by which He imparts the principle of the new life to man, is also used to designate the new birth or the first manifestation of the new life, and in the theology of the seventeenth century frequently occurs as synonymous with conversion or even sanctification. Some speak of it as passive conversion in distinction from conversion proper, which is then called active conversion.
b. Several other distinctions also deserve attention. We should carefully distinguish between the judicial and the recreative acts of God, the former (as justification) altering the state, and the latter (as regeneration, conversion), the condition of the sinner; — between the work of the Holy Spirit in the subconscious (regeneration), and that in the conscious life (conversion); —— between that which pertains to the putting away of the old man (repentance, crucifying of the old man), and that which constitutes the putting on of the new man (regeneration and in part sanctification); —— and between the beginning of the application of the work of redemption (in regeneration and conversion proper), and the continuation of it (in daily conversion and sanctification).
c. In connection with the various movements in the work of application we should bear in mind that the judicial acts of God constitute the basis for His recreative acts, so that justification, though not temporally, is yet logically prior to all the rest; —— that the work of God's grace in the subconscious, precedes that in the conscious life, so that regeneration precedes conversion; —— and that the judicial acts of God (justification, including the forgiveness of sins and the adoption of children) always address themselves to the consciousness, while of the recreative acts one, namely, regeneration, takes place in the subconscious life.
2. THE LUTHERAN VIEW. The Lutherans,
while not denying the doctrines of election,
the mystical union, and the imputation of the righteousness of Christ,
do not take their
starting point in any one of these. They fully recognize the fact that
the subjective
realization of the work of redemption in the hearts and lives of sinners
is a work of
divine grace, but at the same time give a representation of the
ordo salutis
which places
the main emphasis on what is done a
parte hominis
(on the part of
man) rather than on
what is done a
parte Dei
(on the part of God). They see in faith first of all a gift of God,
but at the same time make faith, regarded more particularly as an active
principle in
man and as an activity of man, the all-determining factor in their order
of salvation.
Says Pieper: "So kommt denn hinsichtlich der Heilsaneignung alles
darauf an, dass im
Menschen der Glaube an das Evangelium entstehe."
3. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC VIEW. In Roman Catholic theology the doctrine of the Church precedes the discussion of the ordo salutis. Children are regenerated by baptism, but they who first become acquainted with the gospel in later life receive a gratia sufficiens, consisting in an illumination of the mind and a strengthening of the will. Man can resist this grace, but can also assent to it. If he assents to it, it turns into a gratia co- operans, in which man co-operates to prepare himself for justification. This preparation consists of seven parts: (a) a believing acceptance of the Word of God, (b) an insight into one's sinful condition, (c) hope in the mercy of God, (d) the beginning of love to God, (e) an abhorrence of sin, (f) a resolve to obey the commandments of God, and (g) a desire for baptism. It is quite evident that faith does not occupy a central place here, but is simply co-ordinated with the other preparations. It is merely an intellectual assent to the doctrines of the Church (fides informis) and acquires its justifying power only through the love that is imparted in the gratia infusa (fides caritate formata). It can be called justifying faith only in the sense that it is the basis and root of all justification as the first of the preparations named above. After this preparation justification itself follows in baptism. This consists in the infusion of grace, of supernatural virtues, followed by the forgiveness of sins. The measure of this forgiveness is commensurate with the degree in which sin is actually overcome. It should be borne in mind that justification is given freely, and is not merited by the preceding preparations. The gift of justification is preserved by obeying the commandments and by doing good works. In the gratia infusa man receives the supernatural strength to do good works and thus to merit (with a merit de condigno that is, real merit) all following grace and even everlasting life. The grace of God thus serves the purpose of enabling man once more to merit salvation. But it is not certain that man will retain the forgiveness of sins. The grace of justification may be lost, not only through unbelief, but through any mortal sin. It may be regained, however, by the sacrament of penance, consisting of contrition (or, attrition) and confession, together with absolution and works of satisfaction. Both the guilt of sin and eternal punishment are removed by absolution, but temporal penalties can be canceled only by works of satisfaction.
4. THE ARMINIAN VIEW. The Arminian order of salvation, while ostensibly ascribing the work of salvation to God, really makes it contingent on the attitude and the work of man. God opens up the possibility of salvation for man, but it is up to man to improve the opportunity. The Arminian regards the atonement of Christ "as an oblation and satisfaction for the sins of the whole world" (Pope), that is, for the sins of every individual of the human race. He denies that the guilt of Adam's sin is imputed to all his descendants, and that man is by nature totally depraved, and therefore unable to do any spiritual good; and believes that, while human nature is undoubtedly injured and deteriorated as the result of the fall, man is still able, by nature, to do that which is spiritually good and to turn to God. But because of the evil bias, the perverseness, and the sluggishness of sinful human nature, God imparts to it gracious assistance. He bestows sufficient grace upon all men to enable them, if they choose, to attain to the full possession of spiritual blessings, and ultimately to salvation. The gospel offer comes to all men indiscriminately and exerts a merely moral influence on them, while they have it in their power to resist it or to yield to it. If they yield to it, they will turn to Christ in repentance and faith. These movements of the soul are not (as in Calvinism) the results of regeneration, but are merely introductory to the state of grace properly so called. When their faith really terminates in Christ, this faith is, for the sake of the merits of Christ, imputed to them for righteousness. This does not mean that the righteousness of Christ is imputed to them as their very own, but that, in view of what Christ did for sinners, their faith, which involves the principle of obedience, honesty of heart, and good dispositions, is accepted in lieu of a perfect obedience and is reckoned to them for righteousness. On this basis, then, they are justified, which in the Arminian scheme generally simply means that their sins are pardoned, and not that they are accepted as righteous. Arminians often put it in this form: The forgiveness of sins is based on the merits of Christ, but acceptance with God rests on man's obedience to the law or evangelical obedience. Faith not only serves to justify, but also to regenerate sinners. It insures to man the grace of evangelical obedience and this, if allowed to function through life, issues in the grace of perseverance. However, the grace of God is always resistible and amissible.
The so-called Wesleyan or Evangelical Arminian does not entirely agree with the Arminianism of the seventeenth century. While his position shows greater affinity with Calvinism than the original Arminianism does, it is also more inconsistent. It admits that the guilt of Adam's sin is imputed to all his descendants, but at the same time holds that all men are justified in Christ, and that therefore this guilt is at once removed, at birth. It also admits the entire moral depravity of man in the state of nature, but goes on to stress the fact that no man exists in that state of nature, since there is a universal application of the work of Christ through the Holy Spirit, by which the sinner is enabled to co-operate with the grace of God. It emphasizes the necessity of a supernatural (hyper- physical) work of grace to effect the sinner's renovation and sanctification. Moreover, it teaches the doctrine of Christian perfection or entire sanctification in the present life. It may be added that, while Arminius made the bestowal on man of an ability to co- operate with God a matter of justice, Wesley regarded this as a matter of pure grace. This is the type of Arminianism with which we mostly come in contact. We meet with it, not only in the Methodist Church, but also in large sections of other Churches, and especially in the many undenominational Churches of the present day.